Ancient Cosmology and The Bible: A Christian Case for Fantasy and Myth
"Why is it important to be a 'good tourist'?"
Some Christians draw the line at Cinderella, while others draw the line at horror movies. Whether you fall into the latter or the former camp, one thing is for certain: a vast majority of Christians vehemently believe that their “side” is the right one. Although personal convictions vary and are important to follow, this essay isn't about that. What I argue is that we should exist in the cultural experience outside our vacuums, and instead of taking sides, we should focus collectively on being in the world but not of it, as this is not only lawful for those without particular convictions but also necessary to be witnesses for the gospel.
Evidence for Reading Mythology and Fiction
One of the most famous examples often cited is Paul the Apostle and his engagement with the "Unknown God" to evangelize and bear witness to the citizens of Athens.
“Paul stood in the midst of the Areopagus and said, ‘Men of Athens, I observe that you are very religious in all respects. For while I was passing through and examining the objects of your worship, I also found an altar with this inscription, “TO AN UNKNOWN GOD.” Therefore what you worship in ignorance, this I proclaim to you. The God who made the world and all things in it, since He is Lord of heaven and earth, does not dwell in temples made with hands; nor is He served by human hands, as though He needed anything, since He Himself gives to all people life and breath and all things…’” — Acts 17:22–25
Paul effectively shares the gospel in a way that, though not necessarily “palatable” to the people of Athens, speaks to them in their worldview, making the good news accessible literally and metaphorically in their “language.” Below is a direct example, found in Ellicott’s Commentary for English Readers, of some of the work Paul is drawing from:
“(28) For in him we live, and move, and have our being.—Better, we live, and are moved, and are. Each of the verbs used has a definite philosophical significance. The first points to our animal life; the second—from which is derived the Greek word used by ethical writers for passions, such as fear, love, hate, and the like—not, as the English verb suggests, to man’s power of bodily motion in space, but to our emotional nature; the third, to that which constitutes our true essential being, the intellect and will of man. What the words express is not merely the Omnipresence of the Deity; they tell us that the power for every act and sensation and thought comes from Him. They set forth what we may venture to call the true element of Pantheism, the sense of a “presence interposed,” as in nature, “in the light of setting suns,” so yet more in man. As a Latin poet had sung, whose works may have been known to the speaker, the hearers, and the historian:—
“Deum namque ire per omnes Terras que tractusque maris, ccelumque profundum, Hinc pecudes, armenta, viros, genus omne ferarum, Quemque sibi tenues nascentem arcessere vitas, Scilicet hinc reddi deinde ac resoluta referri, Omnia; nec morti esse locum sed viva volare Sideris in numerum atque alto succedere cælo.”
[“God permeates all lands, all tracts of sea, And the vast heaven. From Him all flocks and herds, And men, and creatures wild, draw, each apart, Their subtle life. To Him they all return, When once again set free. No place is found For death, but all mount up once more on high To join the stars in their high firmament.”] —Virg. Georg. iv. 221–225.”
Paul, using creative and “secular” art to put forth the gospel, makes the gospel message “real” to them, as he even goes on to directly quote one of their own poets—a poem under the title of Phaenomena that explores the main facts of astronomical and meteorological science as known at that time. Paul steps into their world. Here is the poem that Paul is believed to be quoting, a hymn to Zeus by Cleanthes (B.C. 300):
“From Zeus begin; never let us leave His name unloved. With Him, with Zeus, are filled All paths we tread, and all the marts of men; Filled, too, the sea, and every creek and bay; And all in all things need we help of Zeus, For we too are his offspring.” —Aratus, Phaenom. 1–5.
“Most glorious of immortals, many-named, Almighty and forever, thee, O Zeus, Sovereign o’er Nature, guiding with thy hand All things that are, we greet with praises. Thee ’Tis meet that mortals call with one accord, For we thine offspring are, and we alone Of all that live and move upon this earth, Receive the gift of imitative speech.” —Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus.
“The fact of the quotation would at once quicken the attention of the hearers. They would feel that they had not to deal with an illiterate Jew, like the traders and exorcists who were so common in Greek cities, but with a man of culture like their own, acquainted with the thoughts of some at least of their great poets.” Commentaries: (Ellicott, 1905)
“And He made from one man every nation of mankind to live on all the face of the earth, having determined their appointed times and the boundaries of their habitation, that they would seek God, if perhaps they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us; for in Him we live and move and exist, as even some of your own poets have said, ‘For we also are His children.’ Being then the children of God, we ought not to think that the Divine Nature is like gold or silver or stone, an image formed by the art and thought of man. Therefore, having overlooked the times of ignorance, God is now declaring to men that all people everywhere should repent, because He has fixed a day in which He will judge the world in righteousness through a Man whom He has appointed, having furnished proof to all men by raising Him from the dead.” — Acts 17:26–31
This shows a powerful example of why it should be the goal to attempt to be at least aware of culture. Some critics of this argument may object, saying that this was just one instance that was permitted by God out of the necessity of the situation. They may argue it's still wrong to study other cultures, mythology, and secular art; therefore, it is unnecessary because we are no longer surrounded by cultures that believe in mythology as religion, so it would be wrong to study or know it as a Christian.
As I mentioned earlier, the tension of Christianity does not come from wholeheartedly participating in the world or choosing to become a pariah; just as the ancient Hebrews didn't exist in a vacuum, we shouldn't either. The very language of the ancient Hebrews is a Semitic language, which means that it is related to a whole host of other Semitic languages throughout the Middle East. This Semitic language is a matrix belonging to a wide variety of Ancient Near Eastern cultures, which inherently share much in common regarding how they saw the world, but differ significantly in important ways.
Mythology in the Bible
So if it is beneficial to be culturally aware with our own "modern mythologies," why should we read ancient ones? Is it not redundant or useless? Or even, as some might think, demonic?
I argue that reading older mythology is important. I would argue that it is insensitive or even arrogant to think that we, the modern reader, from our own paradigms and perspectives, can look into the ancient mind of those who wrote the Bible and understand it without grasping the basics of their culture and the cultures that surrounded them as an ancient paradigm and mindset in cultural imagery that they used in language and expression. I argue that if we dismiss ancient mythology altogether, we actually dismiss part of the Bible—or at least part of understanding the Bible as it was written—and risk “rewriting” the Bible in our own cultural image.
“You can't read the Bible without studying it...The goal for any believer is to first of all attempt to understand what's being communicated by these authors in their context and then appropriate the significance of that meaning in our modern conversations.”The Bible Project: (The Bible Project, 2023)
An example of some of the oldest myths that are cross-cultural are the dragon myths. Dragons were this universal way to talk about chaos and death, as the Bible Project explains: “There are forces out there that want to take the life of the precious good things in my world,” and everybody knows this feeling one way or another. Cross-culturally, the dragon myth was the embodiment of that.
The dragon-slaying myth was a common cultural Eastern way to talk and explore chaos on both the communal level but also the corporate and cosmic level. Myth in a technical sense is a symbolic narrative that explores and expresses universal common concerns of human existence usually in the origin and nature "of the cosmos.” Biblical narratives routinely employ mythological language and symbolism, culturally drawing upon them in the Israeli family story, told in their history through the means of narrative and poetry drawing upon the same set of symbols that their Ancient and Eastern neighbors did, "because it was a common symbolic language of their time.”
The Bible Project also goes on to say that the Leviathan described in the Bible is a “monstrous reptilian sea creature that has multiple heads.” (Ep. 2, Chaos Dragon)
“God created the skies and the land. The book of Genesis begins with an explanation of how the world came to be. In the beginning, God created the skies and the land. This one has a lot of strange images which show the land emerging from chaos, a solid dome holding back waters in the sky, the Spirit of God hovering over the abyss. Where did these images come from? What we're going to see is that in Mesopotamia, ancient Babylon and Sumeria, and in ancient Egypt, there were fixed traditions—ways of understanding how the cosmos works that involved the waters, things emerging out of the waters, things being separated from each other, the gods. Speaking for the gods acting and Genesis 1 is at home in that cultural environment, and we are not. This series is about ancient cosmology, or the way they thought about the nature of reality. I don't think it's about ancient cosmology, or in other words, the way the ancients thought about the nature of reality, the images they used to think about it, and what these images meant to them. And so ancient cosmologies don't provide an account of the cosmos that's primarily concerned with the physical material processes by which what we call matter came into physical existence. And the way that in ancient eras they accounted for the cosmos is completely different. So today we're inviting you to join us in being a good tourist: leave your own cosmology behind for a second, and let's look at the world in a foreign way, the way the authors of the Bible looked at it.”
If you're honoring the biblical authors that God chose, ancient Israelite authors to communicate through, then you're honoring the cross-cultural nature of that communication. Ancient Israelite authors were not arguing with Canaanites or Babylonians about the issues of our day, but rather were debating different issues, like the nature of power and the cosmological concept of not whether there is a god (like western apologists often do in the modern day), but rather who the supreme entity is.
“The theme of gods bringing order out of chaos through conquering the primordial sea, or a sea-monster (representatives of chaos) is a common one in the ancient world.” This includes Babylonian mythology in Enuma Elish, with the primordial chaos monster Tiamat, goddess of the sea, and Marduk, king of the Babylonian gods, slayer of the goddess of the sea, using the slain monster's remains to create the cosmos.
There are also Egyptian cosmogonies that follow a similar mythology, although slightly different, as the god Ra, through the primordial waters (Nun), enters the world through self-creation, bringing order to the chaos by seizing control from the eight other chaotic gods. Ra, the sun god, crosses the sky every day henceforth and into the underworld to battle an evil serpent, a demon that represents chaos and all outside of the ordered cosmos.
In Ugaritic mythologies, the rebellious sea-god, Yam, is defeated by the storm-god Baal, and through this victory, he is then enthroned as king of the gods.
Many more mythologies could be recounted from all different Mesopotamian cultures that were around before Abraham was even born. Some more examples are the oldest (1900 BC to 1000 BC) roots in the Indian Hindu religious texts. There is also a Hittite version occuring in the Old Kingdom period of the Hittites, around the time when Abraham is travelling. There is a version of this story from the Hurrians (1500 BC) located in the north of Turkey, and Ugaritic (an ancient city and coastal site on the coast of Lebanon) around the time of Joshua and the Judges. Even Greek mythology pulls the cultural symbol of the chaos waters and dragon in the depiction of Zeus, the king of the Greek gods, battling with Typhon.
This shows that there was a broad area of time in which this symbol was active and highly integrated in cultures around. Yahweh intentionally uses this imagery in Genesis in the creation story. In this instance, the chaos waters are hovered over by the Spirit of the Lord instead of engaged in battle like Marduk or Zeus or any of the other gods had to do in order to confront its destruction. Furthermore, God simply speaks to the waters and they are put in order, defeated without struggle, willing to obey every word from the mouth of Yahweh without question. This again is taken one step further with the chaos dragon; in this instance, it is called the “Tannin,” a word that comes from the Ugaritic word for tunnanu from Babylonian mythology, the mythical sea-dragon that Baal, the storm god, has to defeat in an endless match to the death, celebrated by Baal’s worshippers in a festival every year. Tannin is also used in other parts of Baal's mythology with the Leviathan, intensely provoking in the ancient imagination a comparison between Baal the storm god, who has to struggle to defeat the chaos dragon, and Yahweh, the God of the universe, who simply needs to speak a word and creation, chaos, and any chaos monster fall into line obediently, demonstrating God’s superiority over any other idol or even nation. In fact, God creates the Leviathan to 'play' in the waters, as referred to in Genesis.
This is another major clue into how not only the Israelites communicated and utilized their surrounding culture and the culture that they were in, but even a tool God used to show His superiority and sovereignty over chaos. Another prominent use of the surrounding cultures' mythology is in this instance, directly utilized by Yahweh. The seven Egyptian plagues that God used to show His power and authority among both the Jews and Egyptians were directly in response to Egyptian gods. For instance, the plague of the Nile River turning into blood spoke to two revered Egyptian gods. The god Khnum was the guardian of the river’s source and revered as the creator god, the creator of humans, represented by a ram's head with twisting horns. Hapi, the god of the annual flooding of the Nile, was seen as the river's personification and thought of by the people as a fat man with a swelling, pendulous chest to represent prosperity. Yahweh uses the river, the supposed gods' territory, to prove how God was mightier and sovereign over them. They could not stop Yahweh, who made the river bleed, letting the people and false gods know that He in His supreme omnipotence, was the only creator God and the “powerful” Egyptian gods were no match for Him.
By bringing a plague of frogs, God confronts and shames the Egyptian god Heqet, as she is depicted by the Egyptians and their mythology as a frog-headed woman representing fertility, regeneration, and rebirth. As the plague of frogs descended, both the powers behind Heqet and the people could do nothing to stop them.
This continues with the latter plagues: Flies and Shu, the god of air and supporter of the sky; Livestock pestilence and the Egyptian fertility goddess Hathor, who would usually be portrayed as a cow; Boils and God’s power to wound and heal, and the healing gods of Egypt, Sekhmet and Isis, with their powerlessness in the face of the all-powerful Yahweh. This continues on with Hail, Locusts, Darkness, all the way to the plague of death of firstborn children, which directly confronts and repays Pharaoh’s genocidal massacre of Hebrew baby boys, as seen in the earlier passages in Exodus.
Each of these plagues mirrors an Egyptian god, revealing their powerlessness and God's ultimate authority. God utilizes the Egyptian mythology and gods to point back to Himself—an act of dominance and defeat for the Egyptian idols.
The Ancient Hebrews
There are also parts in the Psalms, such as in the “A song of ascents”:
I lift up my eyes to the hills. From where does my help come? 2 My help comes from the LORD, the Maker of heaven and earth. — Psalm 121:1-2
This was in relation to belief systems surrounding David regarding how different gods were worshipped on mountains. The psalmist asks if his help comes from the mountains, which are often associated with pagan shrines in the ancient Near East, such as Asherah poles as tributes to Baal. David is specifically using another belief system to compare the all-powerfulness of our God to the powerlessness of the pagan ones, saying “the hills are not where my help comes from... my help comes from the Lord, the one who made heaven and earth.” David uses the specifics of the comparison framework to overthrow the idea of false gods; in order to do so, he had to know the culture, effectively using the existing symbols of a culture to reveal Yahweh's supremacy.
Addressing Later Verses
There is also concern and readings of later verses in the Bible that specifically call out to believers, saying not to read mythology or folk tales. There are multiple instances of the apostles in the latter part of the New Testament telling the churches and believers of that time period not to consume such “myths.” I argue that because of our modern understanding, our isolated interpretations, and misquotation, these verses have been misunderstood to mean something different than what they truly mean. Like previously discussed, the context of the verse as well as the culture is important to the meaning of a verse.
“(7) But refuse profane and old wives’ fables.—Here Timothy... is now urged to guard himself against the temptation to give himself up to the favorite and apparently enticing study of the sayings of the famous Jewish Rabbis... The minister of Christ was to avoid these strange and unusual interpretations, this vast fantastic collection of legends... He was to regard them as merely profane and old wives’ fables, as being perfectly useless and even harmful in their bearing on practical everyday life."
“In short, the warning isn’t against stories themselves, but against losing the weightier matters of truth in a sea of legalistic distractions.” Commentaries: (Ellicott, 1905)
Simply taking "don't read mythology or folk tales" at face value in a decontextualized reading isn't accurate to what Timothy was trying to convey. All this is to say that art is important, not only for relating, witnessing, and being "in the world and not of it," but also as a means to honor God and express the self in a way that is pleasing to Him.
There are many instances in the Bible where art is used to worship God, such as in the construction of the Temple. There are also instances of artistry as self-expression, truth that leads toward the Savior. Think of David in the Psalms; in his most troubling times, he wrote some of the most impactful poems in the Bible. They often start focused on David's own struggles but are brought back to center God as the one he trusts. This poetry is a form of art. We also know that David was a proficient musician even before he entered the court of King Saul.
This is a strong indicator that art is not a "waste of time," from the biblical perspective as some modern sentiments among Christians suggest. We also see artistry in the Song of Solomon. That poetry is less explicit about God but has been interpreted throughout the centuries not only as art that rejoices in the gift of intimacy between humans, but also as a representation of the bond between Christ and the Church. Even though the Song of Solomon isn't explicit, it still sheds light on basic truths and the goodness of marriage and intimacy. That is what a lot of fiction does: it celebrates goodness.
Some themes of justice found in biblical art can be directly observed in the way Jesus used stories. He utilized parables as an art form to portray themes of justice, right and wrong, and good and evil. Themes of justice are also woven throughout biblical poetry, seen in the Psalms of David and the poetic laments of the prophet Isaiah. As the Israelites faced threats from their enemies, Isaiah began to understand through divine revelation that they had been doing the exact opposite of what God intended: they were practicing injustice in their daily lives.
Redeemed Culture and Modern Mythology
Throughout the modern history of the Church, there have been many examples of great art, from stained glass in cathedrals to songs on the radio. Some examples of “redeemed culture” can be found in the works of C.S. Lewis and J.R.R. Tolkien, but that is only the beginning. There are many modern authors in secular spaces whose work points toward a higher goodness. For example, some of the most popular books of the past century, like The Hunger Games and Divergent, were written by authors who point toward goodness by first highlighting the brokenness of the world and, at the time of their writing, claimed Christ while doing so. Tolkien believed in the concept of “sub-creation.” He argued that because we are made in the image of God, to create sub-worlds is an act of imago Dei, which is a result of our hardwiring to create. In this very action of imago Dei, we reflect God's very nature.
Going even further, there are many “modern mythologies” that Christians hold fast to because they see truth and goodness in them, even if they aren't perfect. Star Wars, for instance, was described as a “modern mythology” by its creator. Even with the series' foundational philosophy relying on dynamic dualism, the Christian community and many others see the fight for goodness and good conquering evil (or the dark side), which connects with audiences universally. This is an example of sub-creation that isn't necessarily made by a Christian and is considered to be secular; but just as Christian sub-creation is to the glory of God as an act of the imago Dei, so too does the creation of art itself, especially when paired with universal truths, support and reflect God's glory, showing how God uses existing symbols of a culture to reveal His supremacy.
Conclusion
At the end of the day, it comes down to the direction in which we are headed as Christians. For some, it may be necessary to deny fiction and fantasy for a time, or even all together if they have a 'weaker conscience' as the Apostle Paul put it. But for others, fiction and fantasy are tools, artistic mediums that point toward something greater, not something to be feared and avoided at all costs. This engagement trains critical analysis, a skill highly valued in an age where "black and white" thinking is the default and letting others think for us, rather than thinking about communal and cultural epistemology, is widespread.
Wisdom and critical thinking are skills all Christians should practice, and I believe that in the "wrestling" with fantasy and myth, those two things can be found growing emotional maturity, allowing you to see from other people’s perspectives across different time periods.
Am I suggesting that we adopt the cultures around us and the practices and customs? Absolutely not. What I'm advocating for is not the worship of false myths, but using myths and fantasy as a way to point to, as C.S. Lewis would say, the “truest myth” as we all participate in the story of the Triune God, who created the heavens and the earth and gives each one of us the opportunity to participate in the ultimate truth of Christ's story as we imitate the Imago Dei.
Works Cited
Aratus. Phaenomena. Trans. G.R. Mair. Loeb Classical Library, 1921.
Cleanthes. Hymn to Zeus. c. 300 B.C.
Ellicott, Charles John. Commentary for English Readers. Cassell and Company, 1905.
ONE FOR ISRAEL. "The Meaning of the Ten Plagues and the Egyptian Gods They Defeated." oneforisrael.org.
The Bible Project. "Chaos Dragon" (Ancient Philosophy Series). bibleproject.com.
Tolkien, J.R.R. "On Fairy-Stories." The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays. George Allen & Unwin, 1983.
Virgil. Georgics. Trans. H.R. Fairclough. Loeb Classical Library, 1916.
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